Towards sustainable extraction of technology materials through integrated approaches. Mining in Salar del Hombre Muerto testifies to another often neglected issue with many DLE technologies. Sci. Alam, M. A. These results highlight how many reports work with solutions that do not mimic real brines (Box2). a, Ion exchange resins, also known as ion sieves or specific sorbents. One conceptual model classifies salars as mature or immature, arguing that the porosity and permeability of the layers determine the amount and rate of recharge18,36. Lithium recovery system using electrostatic field assistance. J. Environ. Eng. 703, 135605 (2020). By definition, lithium extraction is a set of chemical processes where lithium is isolated from a sample and converted to a saleable form of lithium, generally a stable yet readily convertible compound such as lithium carbonate. 2h). M.L.V. However, often only the electrical work required for an electrochemical process is calculated65,79,85,114,116,117,118,119,120. Clean. 2. Miner. Sustainability report (Livent, 2021); https://livent.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Livent_2021SustainabilityReport-English.pdf. Miner. Correspondence to 19), which is not considered concentrated enough for crystallization of a pure lithium product. If geothermal energy harvesting is stopped, lithium extraction would also be affected. Chem. Lithium will continue to be a valuable commodity moving forward as we see the push for clean and sustainable energy making more progress from energy sectors to cryptocurrency tokens. 15, 102108 (2019). J. Environ. Water Process. Three variables indicate a trend towards desertification. Batanero, G. L. et al. A third study coupling field measurements with hydrogeological simulations estimated an average decrease in the evapotranspiration rate of approximately 15% over the whole salar surface since the start of brine mining in 199433. Discordant results have been reported regarding evapotranspiration in Salar de Atacama. Chem. Variations in brine compositions lead to different amounts of recoverable by-products (Fig. Int. We also discuss the potential of DLE for scaling up to industrial levels. Ko, C.-C. et al. Satellite imaging data revealed a reduction in normalized difference vegetation index in the period 19972017, indicating an overall trend of more sparsely vegetated areas37,38. Using Direct Lithium Extraction To Secure U.S. Supplies Houston, J., Butcher, A., Ehren, P., Evans, K. & Godfrey, L. The evaluation of brine prospects and the requirement for modifications to filing standards. Manag. 18). The Li+-loaded phase is then mixed with an aqueous phase to liberate the Li+ cations. The challenge with adjusting these processes is the application of a known methodology to a new, highly complex chemical system. Calvo, E. J. Electrochemical methods for sustainable recovery of lithium from natural brines and battery recycling. Pioneering publication with solid data highlighting the environmental impacts related to lithium mining from continental brines. Study of the direct production of lithium phosphate with pure synthetic solutions and membrane electrolysis. 3D mapping, hydrodynamics and modelling of the freshwater-brine mixing zone in salt flats similar to the Salar de Atacama (Chile). 1b) is currently in use at seven of those facilities18,19. 116,117,120,135,143). Understanding the future of lithium: part 2, temporally and spatially resolved life-cycle assessment modeling. In addition, the process requires a large amount of energy. Oilfield-produced water treatment using conventional and membrane-based technologies for beneficial reuse: a critical review. A model of production and consumption. 3, 593597 (2017). hbspt.cta._relativeUrls=true;hbspt.cta.load(14522108, '5a510455-aed7-478e-ac5d-847c297b1b46', {"useNewLoader":"true","region":"na1"}); Two other technological processes (reverse osmosis and nanofiltration) have been analyzed for their ability to separate lithium from brine water. Water monitoring requires gathering precipitation data, river flows and a sufficient number of observation wells to follow water tables at different locations. Chem. Installation of photovoltaic cells or solar-concentrating power capacity will increase the capital cost of a mining project but will strongly reduce the operational cost. Ogunbiyi, O. et al. Freshwater inputs are essential in some DLE technologies (Fig. The harvesting of energy and the simultaneous recovery of lithium products at geothermal fields might bring similar benefits. Baspineiro, C. F., Franco, J. Recycling of lithium-ion batteries current state of the art, circular economy, and next generation recycling. J. 277, 119471 (2021). A few simple concepts are at the root of any processing technology for selective recovery of lithium compounds from aqueous solutions. A., Vera, M. L. & Flexer, V. Effect of temperature, current density and mass transport during the electrolytic removal of magnesium ions from lithium rich brines. Sustain. DLE technologies aim to tackle the environmental and technoeconomic shortcomings of current practice by avoiding brine evaporation. 508, 187 LP199 (2021). Thus, attempting cation extraction through a cation-selective membrane will only concentrate a mixture of Li+, Na+ and K+. Vikstrm, H., Davidsson, S. & Hk, M. Lithium availability and future production outlooks. Consequently, the solution is thus sent to evaporation ponds for further concentration19,106 (Fig. Regional groundwater flow and accumulation of a massive evaporite deposit at the margin of the Chilean Altiplano. An unanswered question is how the volume of pumped brine relates mathematically to underground freshwater recharge. Laboratory tests with real brines or solutions that closely mimic real compositions are paramount to increase the readiness level of these technologies. 654, 11181131 (2019). 52,139,141). Lithium ions are only a minor component in continental, geothermal and oilfield brines. If the performance of this methodology is reduced for other Li+ concentrations, it should still be implemented in the first instance. Sci. Records are necessary to assess waterflows, including reliable year-round precipitation data, river flows and a sufficient number of observation wells to follow in real time the water tables at different locations33. Park, S. H. et al. 270, 118809 (2021). Palagonia, M. S., Brogioli, D. & La Mantia, F. Lithium recovery from diluted brine by means of electrochemical ion exchange in a flow-through-electrodes cell. 4b) concentration ratios after processing, but the magnitude of the change is markedly different. 2). Reports agree that the brine volume that is pumped will directly determine the amount of underground freshwater recharge18,33,34,35,36. 30, 332339 (2020). Hydrometallurgy 151, 7883 (2015). Although most Na+ and K+ salts are usually much more soluble than their Li+ counterparts144 (Supplementary Table4), the difference in concentrations eventually requires a reduction of these concentration ratios. An electrically switched ion exchange system with self-electrical-energy recuperation for efficient and selective LiCl separation from brine lakes. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5719-9_15. J. Memb. Sci. Final concentrations are not reported in 20% of the articles, 50% of the articles report elution concentrations that are below the average continental brine concentration (0.5gl1) and only 10% report Li+ concentrations that could be considered sufficient for direct crystallization of Li2CO3. Many researchers and technologists propose the re-injection of spent brines18,91,92,93, although from a technological perspective re-injection could dilute a valuable resource18,36. 4d and Supplementary Table3). Li, X. et al. Water Res. The most technologically advanced method of lithium extraction is adsorption of lithium using inorganic sorbents, but other promising technologies are also being developed. Kaplan, R., Mamrosh, D., Salih, H. H. & Dastgheib, S. A. These authors contributed equally: Mara L. Vera, Walter R. Torres. Soc. Pollut. Miner. Thus, the decrease in evapotranspiration is a direct indication of a decreasing water table depth. 596, 117685 (2020). Two examples involving the use of Li+-selective membranes were analysed (Fig. Eng. LiCl concentration increases gradually and salts from other cations crystallize in the ponds as saturation is reached. 32, 1905440 (2020). Econ. Research advances in magnesium and magnesium alloys worldwide in 2020. Lett. In the story played on the front page of the newspaper's Business & Finance section, Morenne and Eaton wrote: "Extracting lithium from brine involves drilling for, piping and processing liquids . Simply put, lithium extraction is the process of removing lithium using mining techniques to access underground deposits of brine water and ore made of compounds containing lithium and then using industrial equipment and vehicles designed to assist in mining activities to complete the process. 591, 117317 (2019). Environmental monitoring should be permanent and precede the start of the exploitation as environmental impacts might only be observable in the long term. 127). Total. Direct Lithium Extraction is a new technological innovation in the lithium extraction process created by Dr. John Burba (also known as the 'Godfather of Lithium') proving to be the superior lithium extraction technique. Low salinity water, typically <3gl1 TDS, although this cut-off value varies. Alloy. 24, 90100 (2020). The chemistry of the three monovalent cations is again very similar, but unlike with multivalent cations, complete abatement is not necessary. When brine comes into contact with these solvents, a large proportion of Li+ cations is transferred to the organic or ionic liquid phase. J. Clean. volume4,pages 149165 (2023)Cite this article. Proc. Eng. Alternatively, the methodology might work as part of a more complex processing strategy that involves pre-processing and post-processing steps (Fig. 11, 2100771 (2021). Electromembrane processes with commercial membranes are another interesting case example to illustrate the importance of using realistic concentrations. & Dyer, L. The beneficiation of lithium minerals from hard rock ores: a review. Athird conceptual and numerical model used extensive field data to calibrate a model that is strongly affected by fault systems33,34,35,39. Nat Rev Earth Environ 4, 149165 (2023). 2g). Highly flexible interconnected Li+ion-sieve porous hydrogels with self-regulating nanonetwork structure for marine lithium recovery. 104, 192208 (2019). Evapotranspiration is strongly dependent on brine pumping volumes because of its dependence on the water table35,40,41. 289 (ed. Marazuela, M. A., Vzquez-Su, E., Ayora, C., Garca-Gil, A. Horne, R. N. Geothermal reinjection experience in Japan. Sci. The non-viability is due to the different chemistry, the much longer time frames that would be required for successful concentration and the fact that most of these deposits are not located in arid regions. Appl. B Biol. Sci. 106, 11251239 (2011). Future research should focus on performing tests on real brines and achieving competitiveness in several performance indicators simultaneously. et al. The volume of fresh water that flows or moves towards the salar is different during brine pumping or in the absence of mining. 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